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Herbs & Cultures

Tradition in Europe

Western herbal medicine

From medieval herbals to present-day phytotherapy

Recipes (3) Herbs in this tradition (290)
The title page of John Gerard's The Herball (London, 1597).
The title page of John Gerard's The Herball (London, 1597). public domain

History

With the invention of printing, the great herbals arrived in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. In 1485 the Gart der Gesundheit appeared in Mainz. In 1542 Leonhart Fuchs published De historia stirpium, with beautiful woodcuts drawn from nature.

The Low Countries played a large role. The Mechelen physician Rembert Dodoens published his Cruydeboeck in Antwerp in 1554, one of the most important herbals of its time, which was translated into many languages. In England John Gerard’s Herball appeared in 1597, and in 1652 The English Physitian by Nicholas Culpeper, who made the knowledge accessible to ordinary people in English.

From the eighteenth century science grew out of herbalism. In 1785 William Withering described how foxglove helped with dropsy caused by heart failure. In the nineteenth century chemists isolated active substances from plants, such as morphine from the opium poppy in 1804. In 1897 Bayer made aspirin, based on a substance also found in willow bark and meadowsweet.

Key ideas

For a long time Western herbalism was based on the doctrine of the humours. Every herb had a temperament, warm or cold, dry or moist.

In the sixteenth century the doctrine of signatures became popular. According to Paracelsus and others, God had placed a sign of a plant’s effect in its shape or colour: a plant with heart-shaped leaves would be good for the heart. Culpeper moreover linked every plant to a planet.

Modern phytotherapy works differently. It looks for active substances, standardised extracts and scientific evidence, though traditional knowledge lives on too.

Knowledge and its transmission

Knowledge spread through books, apothecaries and physicians, and through ordinary people who had herbals at home. Apothecaries made remedies according to pharmacopoeias, official books of recipes.

In the twentieth century the paths parted. Conventional medicine went on with pure substances and synthetic drugs. Herbalists, naturopaths and phytotherapists continued the herbal tradition, often with their own training.

In Germany phytotherapy remained an ordinary part of healthcare, with herbal medicines that doctors prescribe.

Texts and figures

Dodoens’ Cruydeboeck of 1554 describes hundreds of plants with their names, features and uses. It is a pride of Dutch-language science.

Culpeper’s The English Physitian is still in print today. Gerard’s Herball and Fuchs’ De historia stirpium are famous for their illustrations.

In 1785 William Withering wrote An Account of the Foxglove, one of the first careful studies of the effect of a plant in patients.

Today

In the European Union, since Directive 2004/24/EC, traditional herbal remedies may be registered as medicines if they have been in use for at least thirty years, fifteen of them in the EU, and are safe. The European Medicines Agency draws up monographs on many medicinal plants.

Many modern medicines originally come from plants. Herbal teas and herbal supplements are popular.

There is also criticism: some herbal supplements are poorly studied, and quality varies greatly.

Nature in the tradition

Western herbalism uses many native European plants. Chamomile for stomach ache and inflammation, valerian for restlessness and sleeplessness, St John’s wort for low mood, peppermint for bowel complaints.

Calendula is used for the skin, yarrow for wounds, thyme for coughs. Western herbalism also took in plants from other continents, such as echinacea from America.

Foxglove, willow and the opium poppy show how plants lie at the basis of modern medicines.

Approaching it with respect

“Natural” does not automatically mean safe. Foxglove is deadly poisonous. St John’s wort has many interactions with medicines, such as the contraceptive pill, blood thinners and antidepressants.

Consult a doctor or pharmacist before combining herbal remedies with medicines.

From the kitchen

Recipes from this tradition

Registry

Herbs in this tradition

  • Caution

    North America · Herb · № 294

    False unicorn root

    Chamaelirium luteum

    Traditionally attributed effects: diuretic, uterine tonic, emetic.

    Indigenous healing traditions of North America+2
  • Caution

    Europe · Herb · № 334

    Wood sage

    Teucrium scorodonia

    Traditionally attributed effects: astringent, induces sweating, antirheumatic, carminative, wound-healing, promotes bile.

    Western herbal medicine
  • Caution

    Europe · Herb · № 72

    Fennel

    Foeniculum vulgare

    The seed is traditionally used for wind, bloating and cramps. There are some small studies, but evidence is limited.

    Greco-Roman medicine+9Folklore
  • Caution

    Europe · Herb · № 179

    Foxglove

    Digitalis purpurea

    Contains cardiac glycosides that slow the heart rate and strengthen its contractions. They gave rise to the drugs digoxin and digitoxin, still prescribed for certain heart rhythm disorders and heart failure. The margin between an effective and a toxic amount is very small.

    Monastic and folk knowledge+2
  • Caution

    North America · Herb · № 581

    Culver's root

    Veronicastrum virginicum

    Traditionally attributed effects: laxative, stimulating, supports the liver, promotes bile; decongests liver and gallbladder, for gallbladder pain and jaundice.

    Indigenous healing traditions of North America+3
  • Caution

    North America · Herb · № 285

    Bugleweed

    Lycopus virginicus

    Traditionally attributed effects: calming, astringent, tonic, vasoconstricting, cough-suppressing, stops bleeding.

    Eclectic medicine+1
  • Caution

    Europe · Food · № 83

    Flax

    Linum usitatissimum

    Ground flaxseed acts as a gentle bulk-forming fibre for constipation. NCCIH reports it may lower cholesterol slightly; evidence for other claims is unclear.

    Western herbal medicine+3Folklore
  • Caution

    Europe · Food · № 21

    Elderberry

    Sambucus nigra

    Berries have a folk-use history for cold and flu symptoms; clinical evidence remains preliminary.

    Monastic and folk knowledge+4Folklore
  • Caution

    Europe · Herb · № 94

    Chickweed

    Stellaria media

    Traditionally used externally as a cooling ointment or compress for itching, eczema and minor skin irritation. There is hardly any clinical research.

    Monastic and folk knowledge+3Folklore
  • Caution

    Europe · Herb · № 58

    Lady's mantle

    Alchemilla xanthochlora

    An astringent herb used in folk medicine mainly for heavy periods and diarrhoea. There is little clinical research.

    Monastic and folk knowledge+1
  • Caution

    North America · Herb · № 586

    Lady's slipper

    Cypripedium parviflorum (syn. C. pubescens)

    Traditionally attributed effects: strengthens the nerves, antispasmodic, tonic, relaxing, diuretic; for menstrual pain and irregular menstruation, overstimulated nerves and insomnia from stress, pain-relieving.

    Indigenous healing traditions of North America+4
  • Caution

    Europe · Food · № 80

    Walnut

    Juglans regia

    The nuts are a nutritious source of unsaturated fats. Leaf and green husk are astringent and were traditionally used for skin conditions and diarrhoea; clinical evidence is lacking.

    Western herbal medicine+2Folklore
  • Caution

    North America · Herb · № 329

    True unicorn root

    Aletris farinosa

    Traditionally attributed effects: oestrogenic, tonic, stimulates digestion, calming.

    Indigenous healing traditions of North America+2
  • Caution

    North America · Herb · № 169

    Wax myrtle (bayberry)

    Morella cerifera

    The root bark was traditionally used for colds, sore throats and diarrhoea. There is no modern clinical evidence.

    Eclectic medicine+2Folklore
  • Caution

    Europe · Herb · № 106

    Bogbean

    Menyanthes trifoliata

    A strong bitter traditionally used to stimulate appetite and digestion and for rheumatic complaints. Clinical evidence is lacking.

    Western herbal medicine+1
  • Caution

    Oceania · Food · № 173

    Wattle

    Acacia spp. (o.a. A. holosericea, A. decurrens)

    Roasted wattleseed is a protein- and fibre-rich bushfood. The bark of some species is rich in tannins and was used for wounds and diarrhoea. There is little clinical research.

    Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander knowledge+1
  • Caution

    Europe · Herb · № 86

    Greater plantain

    Plantago major

    The leaf is traditionally bruised and applied to insect bites, small wounds and grazes, and taken as tea for coughs. Clinical evidence is limited.

    Monastic and folk knowledge+9Folklore
  • Caution

    North America · Herb · № 587

    Western larch

    Larix occidentalis

    Traditionally attributed effects: stimulating, prebiotic; improves digestion and gut flora, strengthens the immune system, studied in tumours, helps with middle ear infections in children.

    Indigenous healing traditions of North America+1
  • Caution

    North America · Herb · № 190

    Arborvitae

    Thuja occidentalis

    Traditionally attributed effects: expels worms, astringent, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, stimulates muscles, antiseptic.

    Indigenous healing traditions of North America+4Folklore
  • Caution

    North America · Herb · № 332

    Wild indigo

    Baptisia tinctoria

    Traditionally attributed effects: antiseptic, antibacterial, fever-reducing, laxative.

    Indigenous healing traditions of North America+3
  • Caution

    North America · Herb · № 156

    Wild black cherry

    Prunus serotina

    The dried bark was long used in cough syrups to calm irritating coughs. Modern clinical evidence is lacking.

    Indigenous healing traditions of North America+4
  • Caution

    North America · Herb · № 159

    Wild yam

    Dioscorea villosa

    Traditionally used for abdominal and uterine cramps. Wild yam cream is sold as 'natural progesterone', but the body cannot convert diosgenin into hormones; only a laboratory can.

    Curanderismo+2
  • Caution

    North America · Herb · № 634

    Wintergreen

    Gaultheria procumbens

    Traditionally attributed effects: expels wind and dampness and cools heat in hot, swollen joints and muscle pain, drains damp heat in the urinary tract and moves stagnant qi and blood in pain.

    Haudenosaunee medicine+3
  • Caution

    Europe · Herb · № 331

    White deadnettle

    Lamium album

    Traditionally attributed effects: astringent, antispasmodic, tonic for the reproductive organs.

    Western herbal medicine
  • Caution

    North America · Herb · № 598

    White oak

    Quercus alba

    Traditionally attributed effects: strongly astringent; strengthens lax tissue (diarrhoea, inflamed gums, chronic nasal congestion, weak bladder), stops bleeding (nosebleeds, internal bleeding).

    Indigenous healing traditions of North America+2
  • Caution

    Europe · Herb · № 330

    White bryony

    Bryonia alba

    Traditionally attributed effects: antirheumatic, laxative.

    Western herbal medicine
  • Caution

    Asia · Herb · № 128

    White mulberry

    Morus alba en M. nigra

    The leaf (sang ye) is being studied for post-meal blood sugar and is used in Chinese medicine for coughs and fevers; bark, twigs and berries each have their own use too. Evidence is preliminary.

    Chinese medical traditions+2
  • Caution

    Europe · Herb · № 301

    Horse chestnut

    Aesculus hippocastanum

    Traditionally attributed effects: anti-inflammatory, astringent.

    Western herbal medicine
  • Caution

    Central America and the Caribbean · Herb · № 632

    Yerba mansa

    Anemopsis californica

    Traditionally attributed effects: expels wind and dampness in joint pain that worsens in cold, wet weather, opens blocked sinuses and dries dampness in slow-healing wounds and swellings.

    Curanderismo+2
  • Caution

    South America · Herb · № 324

    Soap bark

    Quillaja saponaria

    Traditionally attributed effects: expectorant, cleansing, anti-inflammatory.

    Mapuche medicine+1
  • Caution

    North America · Herb · № 150

    Black cohosh

    Actaea racemosa

    Mainly sold for menopausal symptoms such as hot flushes. NCCIH reports that study results are mixed and there is not enough evidence that it helps.

    Indigenous healing traditions of North America+4
  • Caution

    North America · Mineral · № 365

    Zinc

    An essential mineral. Zinc lozenges may make a cold slightly shorter if taken at the very first symptoms; for herpes, ADHD or other conditions the evidence is weak or absent.

    Western herbal medicine
  • Caution

    Asia · Herb · № 18

    Licorice root

    Glycyrrhiza glabra

    A root with long use in several traditions; high-quality evidence does not support most health claims.

    Ayurveda+9Folklore
  • Caution

    Europe · Herb · № 187

    English oak

    Quercus robur

    The bark contains a lot of tannins and is astringent. It is used as a decoction for diarrhoea, as a mouthwash for inflamed gums and as a sitz bath for haemorrhoids.

    Western herbal medicine+1Folklore
  • Caution

    Europe · Herb · № 108

    Barberry

    Berberis vulgaris

    Bark and root contain berberine, which is being studied for blood sugar and cholesterol. The berries are rich in vitamin C. Evidence for barberry itself is limited.

    Western herbal medicine
  • Caution

    Asia · Herb · № 135

    Black pepper and long pepper

    Piper nigrum

    Important warming spices in Ayurveda, used for sluggish digestion and colds. Piperine from pepper increases the absorption of some substances, such as curcumin.

    Ayurveda+5Folklore