Tradition in Europe

Western herbal medicine

From medieval herbals to present-day phytotherapy

Recipes (3) Herbs in this tradition (290)

The title page of John Gerard's The Herball (London, 1597). public domain

History

With the invention of printing, the great herbals arrived in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. In 1485 the Gart der Gesundheit appeared in Mainz. In 1542 Leonhart Fuchs published De historia stirpium, with beautiful woodcuts drawn from nature.

The Low Countries played a large role. The Mechelen physician Rembert Dodoens published his Cruydeboeck in Antwerp in 1554, one of the most important herbals of its time, which was translated into many languages. In England John Gerard’s Herball appeared in 1597, and in 1652 The English Physitian by Nicholas Culpeper, who made the knowledge accessible to ordinary people in English.

From the eighteenth century science grew out of herbalism. In 1785 William Withering described how foxglove helped with dropsy caused by heart failure. In the nineteenth century chemists isolated active substances from plants, such as morphine from the opium poppy in 1804. In 1897 Bayer made aspirin, based on a substance also found in willow bark and meadowsweet.

Key ideas

For a long time Western herbalism was based on the doctrine of the humours. Every herb had a temperament, warm or cold, dry or moist.

In the sixteenth century the doctrine of signatures became popular. According to Paracelsus and others, God had placed a sign of a plant’s effect in its shape or colour: a plant with heart-shaped leaves would be good for the heart. Culpeper moreover linked every plant to a planet.

Modern phytotherapy works differently. It looks for active substances, standardised extracts and scientific evidence, though traditional knowledge lives on too.

Knowledge and its transmission

Knowledge spread through books, apothecaries and physicians, and through ordinary people who had herbals at home. Apothecaries made remedies according to pharmacopoeias, official books of recipes.

In the twentieth century the paths parted. Conventional medicine went on with pure substances and synthetic drugs. Herbalists, naturopaths and phytotherapists continued the herbal tradition, often with their own training.

In Germany phytotherapy remained an ordinary part of healthcare, with herbal medicines that doctors prescribe.

Texts and figures

Dodoens’ Cruydeboeck of 1554 describes hundreds of plants with their names, features and uses. It is a pride of Dutch-language science.

Culpeper’s The English Physitian is still in print today. Gerard’s Herball and Fuchs’ De historia stirpium are famous for their illustrations.

In 1785 William Withering wrote An Account of the Foxglove, one of the first careful studies of the effect of a plant in patients.

Today

In the European Union, since Directive 2004/24/EC, traditional herbal remedies may be registered as medicines if they have been in use for at least thirty years, fifteen of them in the EU, and are safe. The European Medicines Agency draws up monographs on many medicinal plants.

Many modern medicines originally come from plants. Herbal teas and herbal supplements are popular.

There is also criticism: some herbal supplements are poorly studied, and quality varies greatly.

Nature in the tradition

Western herbalism uses many native European plants. Chamomile for stomach ache and inflammation, valerian for restlessness and sleeplessness, St John’s wort for low mood, peppermint for bowel complaints.

Calendula is used for the skin, yarrow for wounds, thyme for coughs. Western herbalism also took in plants from other continents, such as echinacea from America.

Foxglove, willow and the opium poppy show how plants lie at the basis of modern medicines.

Approaching it with respect

“Natural” does not automatically mean safe. Foxglove is deadly poisonous. St John’s wort has many interactions with medicines, such as the contraceptive pill, blood thinners and antidepressants.

Consult a doctor or pharmacist before combining herbal remedies with medicines.

From the kitchen

Recipes from this tradition

Registry

Herbs in this tradition

Caution
Asia · Food · № 272
Apricot
Prunus armeniaca
Traditionally attributed effects: cough-suppressing, astringent, antibacterial, pain-relieving, diuretic, anti-inflammatory; wild cherry suppresses cough.
Chinese medical traditions+2
Caution
Asia · Herb · № 303
Achyranthes root (huai niu xi)
Achyranthes bidentata
Traditionally attributed effects: promotes circulation, liver tonic, pain-relieving.
Chinese medical traditions+2
Caution
Europe · Herb · № 277
Bistort
Bistorta officinalis (syn. Polygonum bistorta)
Traditionally attributed effects: astringent, stops diarrhoea and bleeding, anticatarrhal.
Western herbal medicine
Caution
Europe · Herb · № 57
Agrimony
Agrimonia eupatoria
An astringent, tannin-rich herb traditionally used for diarrhoea, sore throats and minor wounds. Good human research is lacking.
Western herbal medicine+2
Caution
Europe · Herb · № 79
Elecampane
Inula helenium
The root is traditionally used for productive coughs and bronchitis; it is rich in inulin. Clinical evidence is limited.
Greco-Roman medicine+4
Caution
Africa · Herb · № 4
Aloe vera
Aloe vera
The gel from the leaf is used externally to soothe the skin and for minor burns. Research on wound healing gives mixed results; the gel is no substitute for wound care.
Kallawaya healing knowledge+6Folklore
Caution
Europe · Herb · № 63
Wormwood
Artemisia absinthium
One of the most bitter herbs; traditionally used to stimulate appetite and digestion and against intestinal worms. Clinical evidence is limited.
Greco-Roman medicine+5
Caution
North America · Herb · № 158
American skullcap
Scutellaria lateriflora (en S. baicalensis)
Used in Western herbalism for nervousness, tension and sleep problems. A few small studies suggest a mild calming effect.
Indigenous healing traditions of North America+4
Caution
North America · Herb · № 628
North American wild ginger
Asarum caudatum, A. canadense en verwante soorten
Traditionally attributed effects: expels wind-cold, opens a blocked nose, warms the lung in cough with clear phlegm and expels cold and dampness in menstrual pain and other pain.
Haudenosaunee medicine+4
Caution
North America · Herb · № 593
Skunk cabbage
Lysichiton americanus
Traditionally attributed effects: strengthens the nerves, stimulating, antispasmodic, induces sweating, expectorant; opens the lungs and reduces cough and bronchial spasms (acute asthma), ointment against ringworm, relieves muscle and joint pain.
Indigenous healing traditions of North America+2
Caution
Europe · Food · № 84
Apple
Malus domestica
A fruit rich in fibre such as pectin; grated apple is an old home remedy for mild diarrhoea. No specific medicinal effect has been proven.
Western herbal medicine+2Folklore
Caution
Europe · Food · № 296
Globe artichoke
Cynara cardunculus var. scolymus
Traditionally attributed effects: liver tonic and restorative, promotes bile.
Western herbal medicine
Caution
Asia · Herb · № 17
Ashwagandha
Withania somnifera
An Ayurvedic medicinal plant. Some preparations have been studied for stress and sleep, but evidence is limited and products vary.
Ayurveda+2
Caution
Europe · Food · № 65
Asparagus
Asparagus officinalis en A. racemosus
A nutritious vegetable; root and shoots were traditionally used as a diuretic. There is no good evidence for a medicinal effect.
Greco-Roman medicine+2
Caution
Central America and the Caribbean · Food · № 166
Avocado
Persea americana
A fruit rich in monounsaturated fats, fibre and potassium; it fits a diet that is favourable for cholesterol. Avocado oil is used in skin care.
Maya healing knowledge+4Folklore
Caution
Asia · Herb · № 36
Asian ginseng
Panax ginseng (ook P. quinquefolius)
Research consists mostly of small, short studies; there is little evidence of health effects.
Chinese medical traditions+3
Caution
Europe · Other · № 597
Usnea
Usnea barbata
Traditionally attributed effects: antimicrobial, antifungal, immunomodulating, soothing, laxative, nourishing; against streptococci (sore throat), staphylococci, cellulitis and infected wounds, antiviral (HPV), yeast infections.
Western herbal medicine
Caution
Asia · Herb · № 310
Balloon flower
Platycodon grandiflorus
Traditionally attributed effects: expectorant, antifungal, antibacterial, lowers blood sugar.
Chinese medical traditions+3
Caution
North America · Herb · № 574
Balsam poplar
Populus balsamifera
Traditionally attributed effects: buds: stimulating, tonic, diuretic, soothing, expectorant; bark: expectorant, laxative; for skin problems (eczema, psoriasis), dry cough, constipation, kidney/bladder support, rheumatism and gout.
Indigenous healing traditions of North America+3
Caution
North America · Herb · № 573
Balsam fir
Abies balsamea
Traditionally attributed effects: stimulating, antiseptic, pain-relieving; for respiratory infections, cough and sore throat, cystitis and enteritis, aid to quitting smoking; externally for burns, wounds, haemorrhoids, muscle pain.
Indigenous healing traditions of North America+3
Caution
Asia · Herb · № 134
Bamboo
Phyllostachys nigra
In Chinese medicine bamboo shavings (zhu ru) and bamboo sap are used for coughs with yellow phlegm, nausea and restlessness. Ayurveda uses silica-rich bamboo manna. Clinical research is scarce.
Ayurveda+2
Caution
Africa · Herb · № 8
Basil
Ocimum basilicum
Traditionally used as an aromatic food plant and in herbal preparations.
Western herbal medicine+1Folklore
Caution
Asia · Herb · № 293
Pubescent angelica (du huo)
Angelica pubescens
Traditionally attributed effects: antirheumatic, pain-relieving, anti-inflammatory.
Chinese medical traditions+2
Caution
Asia · Herb · № 229
Benzoin
Styrax benzoin
Traditionally attributed effects: expectorant, astringent, antispasmodic.
Chinese medical traditions+3Folklore
Caution
Europe · Herb · № 276
Bearberry
Arctostaphylos uva-ursi
Traditionally attributed effects: urinary antiseptic, astringent.
Western herbal medicine
Caution
Europe · Herb · № 186
Birch
Betula pendula
Traditionally attributed effects: bitter, astringent, antirheumatic.
Western herbal medicine+1Folklore
Caution
Europe · Herb · № 67
Borage
Borago officinalis
The seed oil, rich in gamma-linolenic acid, has been studied for eczema and joint inflammation with mixed results. The leaf was traditionally used to reduce fever and as a tonic.
Western herbal medicine+2
Caution
Europe · Herb · № 93
Betony
Betonica officinalis (syn. Stachys officinalis)
Traditionally used for tension headaches and nervousness. Modern clinical research is lacking.
Greco-Roman medicine+3
Caution
Europe · Herb · № 278
Bitter candytuft
Iberis amara
Traditionally attributed effects: antispasmodic, relaxing, strengthens the digestive tract, carminative; traditionally for gout and rheumatism.
Western herbal medicine
Caution
Asia · Herb · № 123
Bitter orange
Citrus × aurantium
The dried unripe fruit (zhi shi) and peel are used in Chinese medicine for bloating and sluggish digestion. NCCIH warns that weight-loss products containing bitter orange (synephrine) pose risks to the heart and blood pressure.
Chinese medical traditions+2
Caution
Europe · Mineral · № 9
Epsom salt
Magnesium sulphate. In sufficient amounts it acts as a laxative because it holds water in the bowel. In a bath it is used to relax muscles; that magnesium is absorbed through the skin has not been shown.
Western herbal medicine
Caution
Europe · Other · № 74
Bladderwrack
Fucus vesiculosus
A brown seaweed rich in iodine; formerly used for an underactive thyroid and for weight loss. Weight-loss claims are unproven.
Western herbal medicine
Caution
Europe · Food · № 101
Bilberry
Vaccinium myrtillus en V. vitis-idaea
Rich in anthocyanins. Dried berries are an old remedy for diarrhoea. NCCIH reports there is not enough evidence for eye, blood-vessel or other claims.
Western herbal medicine
Caution
North America · Herb · № 281
Blue flag
Iris versicolor
Traditionally attributed effects: anti-inflammatory, diuretic, stimulating, laxative.
Indigenous healing traditions of North America+3
Caution
North America · Herb · № 280
Blue cohosh
Caulophyllum thalictroides
Traditionally attributed effects: tonic, antispasmodic, anti-inflammatory, stimulates the uterus, diuretic, antirheumatic.
Indigenous healing traditions of North America+4
Caution
North America · Herb · № 372
Bloodroot
Sanguinaria canadensis
Traditionally attributed effects: stimulating, emetic, expectorant, restorative; part of escharotic treatment for cervical dysplasia, warms lungs/stomach/uterus, promotes coughing up.
Indigenous healing traditions of North America+4